However, norm compliance of member states does not adequately prove that a genuine sense of we-feeling and collective identity exists (Jones and Smith 2007). Thailand Escaped Colonialism, But Still Adapted Western Ideas. The country's postcolonial rulers seized the advantages left them by the British empire and used them, for the most part, for the benefit of wider society. Ethnic Identities and National Identities: Some Examples from Malaysia. Identities 6, no. Under such an arrangement, it is not surprising that commonalities between states are often only highlighted wherever mutual benefit exists (Jones 2015). As such, a ground-up approach may offer greater prospects in the creation of a sentiment of shared belonging and collective regional identity. Frequently the result was disorder, corruption, and, by the end of the war, a seething hatred of the Japanese. It will also argue that identities can be overlapping and not mutually exclusive and that an individual can be both a citizen of a Southeast Asian state and also sees himself as a fully participatory member of the ASEAN community. These colonial regimes, however, were not insubstantial, as they put down strong bureaucratic roots andthough often co-opting existing administrative apparatusesformed centralized disciplined structures of great power. For instance, racialised colonial capitalismwas implemented across the colonies in which a racialized hierarchy was introduced that stratified ethnic communities into their respective social and economic roles (Noor 2106). To this end, ASEAN political elites have embarked on a project to build an integrated ASEAN Community anchored on a collective ASEAN identity. A collective ASEAN worldview can be forged through the use of these cultural markers. In Southeast Asia, the British Empire launched counterinsurgency movements in the 1950s and 1960s across Vietnam, Myanmar, Burma and Malaya, a British colony of several states on the Malay . The most important reasons for the change were a growing Western technological superiority, an increasingly powerful European mercantile community in Southeast Asia, and a competitive scramble for strategic territory. It argues The effects of colonialism should not be brushed aside or dismissed as insignificance because it is still important to how many nations handle their domestic and international policy today. 3 (July-Sept 2011): 407-435. Since then, efforts have been made by the ASEAN member states to cultivate a collective ASEAN identity by fostering a sentiment of we feeling which will inform regionalism efforts and facilitate greater cooperation between Southeast Asians in the political, security, economic and cultural arena (Murti 2016). Jones, Michael E. Forging an ASEAN Identity: The Challenge to Construct a Shared Destiny. Contemporary Southeast Asia 26, no. Southeast Asia was to be re-modelled as an economic space primarily ruled by the logics of rationalism and instrumentalism. Berlin: Lit Verlag, 2010. Bangkok: Heinrich Bll Stiftung Southeast Asia, 2017. Only through such efforts will there be greater understanding, awareness and appreciation of the regions interconnectedness that will aid the people of ASEAN in shedding their mental barriers of exclusive national identities and develop a sentiment of common belonging and shared destiny. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, 1965. Thirdly, the management of intra-regional relations continues to pose a challenge to the cohesiveness of ASEAN. Consider how most countries in Southeast Asia are named after independence, Burma for Burmans, Thailand for Thais, Laos for Laotian and Malaysia for Malays. Neo-colonialism is not just any domination, but it is an iniquitous economic relationship wherein a country uses the natural resources of another . Furthermore, when the sample was split between government officers and academics it was the academics that were the most cynical: 66.7% of them answered no to the question of trust while 55.3% of government respondents answered no to the same question. _____________. Yet, these challenges can be resolved if the seeds for a mental leap are sowed to make the ASEAN community an interconnected, living, breathing community again. Citizens of ASEAN have very little knowledge about their neighbouring countries, not to mention fellow member states that are located further away (Thuzar 2015). Jones, David Martin & Michael L. R. Smith. A few constructivist interpretations have surfaced which attempt to fill this gap. The newer generation, however, was more certain in its opposition to colonial rule (or, in Siam, rule by the monarchy), clearer and far more political in its conception of a nation, and unabashedly determined to seize leadership and initiative in their own societies. Instead, the continued preoccupation over state sovereignty by the political elites inhibits the formation of a genuine ASEAN community. In his view, before reaching the state of integration, the formation of a common identity must first be attained before intensive cooperation among states can begin. Looking at Malaysia and Singapore as a case study will show how two states have managed to dampen violence and achieve a degree of cohesion despite the legacies of colonialism, Japanese occupation, and decolonization. While there is no doubt that national belonging will remain far more salient to the Southeast Asians sense of self as they will find it difficult to escape from the well-embedded consciousness of the nation-states, they can however become aware of the possibilities of overlapping identities that directs them to think of themselves not only a citizen of their respective nation-states but also an ASEAN citizen who sees the entire Southeast Asia region as a common home. It did this through bringing medicine and education. They were unable, however, to avoid other concomitants of state expansion and modernization. New York: Random House, 1984. A revamp of history education in the region is critical in such a venture. Promoting ASEAN Awareness at the Higher Education Chalkface. Contemporary Southeast Asia: A Journal of International & Strategic Affairs 39, no. One example was how the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824, which dismembered the contiguous Malay world encompassing Malaya Peninsular and Sumatra Islands, began to use divisive vocabulary that emphasized on the sanctity of national sovereignty and territorial boundaries (The Edinburgh Annual Register 1825). Historically, Micronesians descended from seafarers who populated the island atolls between 2000 BC and 500 BC. Mandailing-Batak-Malay: A People Defined and Divided, In From Palermo to Penang, A Journey into Political Anthropology, edited by Francois Ruegg and Andrea Boscoboinik. Thus, ASEANs main function was to assist the nascent nation-states in promoting, enhancing and preserving the political legitimacy of its government and safeguarding them from any external threats that may de-stabilize their sovereignty (Noor 2017, 9-15). The idea of opposing Dutch rule, furthermore, was not abandoned entirely, and it was only the devastating Java War (182530) that finally tamed the Javanese elite and, oddly enough, left the Dutch to determine the final shape of Javanese culture until the mid-20th century. Spain had seized the Philippines in the 1500s. Political instability. In search of Southeast Asia: a modern history. Murti, Gita. In the 1930s, however, a series of anticolonial revolts took place in Burma, Vietnam, and the Philippines. Except in Java and much of the Philippines, the expansion of Western colonial rule in most of Southeast Asia was a phenomenon only of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries. Leifer, Michael. Improvement of living standards. For instance, the inhabitants of the Indonesian archipelago began to see themselves as Dutch subjects, Malaya and Burma as British subjects and Indochinese as French subjects. A lack of a real sense of shared belonging among the people of Southeast Asia to the ASEAN identity remains. In the earlier period Europeans tended to acquire territory as a result of complicated and not always desired entanglements with Southeast Asian powers, either in disputes or as a result of alliances. 6, Due to the deliberate over-emphasis on distinct and exclusive national identity, little is discussed on the interconnectedness and cross-cultural interactions of pre-colonial Southeast Asian communities and kingdoms (Noor 2012). Such a worldview was to undergo a massive transformation during colonial rule. Indian nationalism is rising, and it is a . To ease this process, different ethnicities were forcefully amalgamated together into convenient, methodical racial categories. Realist interpretations continue to dominate the study of ASEAN. Native inhabitants of these lands were forced to put up with settlers overuse of land, animals, and natural resources across the globe. The arrival of the Japanese armed forces in Southeast Asia in 194142 did not, however, occasion independence. Beyond China, European imperialism in Asia remained strong. K.N Chaudhuris (1990) research shows that pre-colonial Southeast Asia was a multi-polar world with overlapping spheres of geographic, economic and political system all co-existing simultaneously. Another obstacle was that the ordinary people, especially outside cities and towns, inhabited a different social and cultural world from that of the emerging leaders. It also caused problems with the motherland. The Thai may have colonized themselves, as some critics have noted, but in so doing they also escaped or diluted some of the more corrosive characteristics of Western rule, among them racism and cultural destruction. David M. Malitz, Senior Research Fellow, DIJ, Japan, Vietnam The result is a highly apathetic population who are more concerned about what happens within their country but remain unconnected and largely unaware of the region. There have also been historical evidences which show that states in Southeast Asian in the pre-colonial era did not see themselves as distinct entities that are based on exclusive identity. As Benedict Anderson postulates on the possibilities of nation-states as imagined communities, so can a regional identity exist as an ontological object of the mind if Southeast Asians are able to re-imagine a contemporary Southeast Asia not solely defined by territorial borders and exclusive national identity (Anderson 1983). For example, Pohnpei, an island state of the Federated States of . Imperialism in South Asia and the Pacific. From the earliest days of imperialism, colonizers have had detrimental effects on the ecosystems that they invaded. . The continued political hegemony and economic exploitation of past colonies is something many ex-colonial leaders have spoken out about. 3 (2004): 423-450. Unrestricted by any form of political borders or allegiance to a single locality, Southeast Asians constantly moved across the region. This brought rapid changes to the physical and human landscape and coupled Southeast Asia to a new worldwide capitalist system. In many areas there also was a deep-seated hatred of control by foreigners, whether they be the Europeans themselves or the Chinese, Indians, or others who were perceived as creatures of their rule. On the contrary, ordinary citizens at the grass-root level do not have their hands tied in the same manner. ASEANs One Identity and One Community: A Slogan or a Reality? Yale Journal of International Affairs, March 14, 2016. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar. It was a living reality for each individual Southeast Asian living in the pre-colonial era to possess multiple identities and having a sense of belonging that was not solely determined by ones place of birth (Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia 2014: 209-231). By the nature of their role, interest and responsibilities, they are conditioned to act in a manner that is fixated on the protection of the territorial and economic sovereignty of their nation-states. The first phase of European colonisation of Southeast Asia took place throughout the 16th and 17th centuries. It occurs when one nation subjugates another, conquering its population and exploiting it, often while . _____________. Pham, Quang Minh. Scholars such as Emmerson (2005) and Chang (2016) have tended to look at ASEAN as primarily a security community in which they posited that ASEAN is essentially made up of a group of sovereign states that have a commitment to abstain from the use of force against each other. Since the first contact with Westerners, starting with the Portuguese and Spanish explorers, the islands have been colonized by various European and Asian countries. Europeans created more realistic and distinct boundaries between Southeast Asia territories that were ruled by sultans and kings. One of the major negative impacts of Colonialism was slavery. As such, a ground-up approach may offer greater prospects in the creation of a collective regional identity and go a long way in helping to develop a shared sense of belonging that transcends national boundaries. Southeast Asian countries do not identify with each other in the same manner as articulated in the ASEAN Vision. These statements serve as an indicator that ASEAN is not united by any geographical or historical linkages but rather material and political-economic interests, whereas Southeast Asia remains a region where cultures, histories, language and ethnic identities overlap and cross-fertilize one another. ASEAN today is in a state of an identity crisis. They argue that colonialism was the main source of inequality in a society that had thrived much better there before. There is a clear absence of we-ness among the people of ASEAN as any memories of a pre-colonial Southeast Asia linked by commerce, interdependency and a sense of shared space have become largely forgotten (Noor 2017: 9-15). However, Acharyas works have thus far only focused on elite-level socialization in examining the prospects for community building and have yet to discuss the role and interaction of the general populace. The Integration Theorists and the Study of International Relations. In The Global Agenda: Issues and Perspectives, edited by C.W. Scholars inquiring along this line of argument also based their work on the premise that world politics is essentially a competition for power and they are inclined to explain the fragility of regional cooperation and identity as a natural outcome of rational, self-interested state behavior. According to Karl W. Deutsch, the building of a community occurs only when a group of people develop common values to the point whereby a sense of we feeling and solidarity is shared among its members (Deutsch et al, 1957). Negative effects of colonialism. The institution of kingship itself seemed to become more dynamic and intimately involved in the direction of the state. Explaining ASEAN: Regionalism in Southeast Asia. 7. ASEAN has also gone on to achieve some success in regional economic integration projects with a number of agreements signed in principle on the setting up of free trade zones, abolishment of tariffs, product standards and conformity (Severino 2007: 17-24). Shinzo Abes Military Legacy for Indonesia: The Seed Planted for the Future Regional Security in Southeast Asia: Beyond the ASEAN Way. Rahim, Lily Zubaidah. "What impact did Western imperialism and colonialism have on Asia" . There is a lack of shared sentiments of solidarity or we-feeling and the ground realities have proven to be at odds with the vision as spelt out in ASEAN vision 2020. 9 For such a venture, it may be instructive to learn from the mental maps of the indigenous communities such as the Bajao of the Sulu Seas or the Dayaks of Borneo who have stubbornly insisted on the rejection of fixed political geography or exclusive national identities as imposed by distant power centers. The authors also find that colonialism's other ills (including racism, political repression and economic exploitation) canceled out any positive effects. This led to the adoption of the motto, One Vision, One Identity, One Community, at the eleventh ASEAN Summit in December 2005, which signaled a realization by the ASEAN political leaders that a true ASEAN community must be a community of its people based on common ASEAN values and a collective ASEAN identity. Sense of community: A definition and theory. Journal of Community Psychology 14, no. Agence France-Presse. From the Editor: Southeast Asias Artful Diplomacy? 1 In preventing any prolonged armed conflict between its member states for half a century, ASEAN has also been credited with maintaining the regional stability that has allowed the rapid economic development of its member states, especially in the case of the Tiger economies of Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand. For ASEAN to develop a collective identity that will lead to the formation of a genuine, shared ASEAN community, a significant mental leap must be taken by the citizens of ASEAN to internalize the logic of overlapping identities and re-imagine the region. Only Siam remained largely intact and independent. _____________. 2 (Spring 1990): 15051. In particular, this article will discuss how colonialism has defined national identity based on exclusivity and erased any memory of pre-colonial affinities and collective past that could have served as the foundation of a shared regional identity. The negative effects stated in Documents 2 and 7 shows how bitter sweet the effect of imperialism . Given the arduous tasks of nation-building that seeks to unite the disparate ethnic and religious communities within the political boundaries are inherited from the colonial rulers, the governments of nascent Southeast Asian states forged national identities based on constructed, distinctive national characteristics and values that supposedly sets them apart from their neighbours (Narine 2004). The works of Caporaso and Kim (2009); Hooghe and Marks (2004); Mayer and Palmowski (2004); similarly suggests that the existence of a collective identity and we-feeling is essential in working as a catalyst for the regional integration process. The best-known figures are Sukarno of Indonesia, Ho Chi Minh of Vietnam, and U Nu of Burma (subsequently Myanmar). _____________. European goods, ideas, and diseases shaped the changing continent. 6 (November/December 2012): 1043-1066. From the Editor Myanmars Transition Stalled: From Opening to Coup, The International Court of Justice ruled in favour of Cambodia in 2013 with the temple of Preah Vihear and most of the nearby land belonging to Cambodia. Roberts, Christopher. India provides a cautionary tale. The organization creates a vision for regional solidarity yet its people remain trapped in an inherited language game that has defined national identity based on exclusivity and a worldview that accept modern state boundaries as a given political reality. In retrospect, some of these policies had a recognizably modern ring to them, and, taken together, they represented, if not a revolution, at least a concerted effort at change. Aguilar Jr, Filomeno. Post-colonial states, ethnic minorities and separatist conflicts: case studies from Southeast and South Asia. Ethnic & Racial Studies 34, no. This economic growth has had both positive and negative effects. State sovereignty, political legitimacy and regional institutionalism in the Asia-Pacific. The Pacific Review 17, no. The revolts, and the economic disarray of the Great Depression, also suggested that European rule was neither invulnerable nor without flaws. HC441.B64 2007 330.95'041dc22 2007006545 An electronic version of this book is freely available, thanks to the support of libraries working with Knowledge Unlatched. A true ASEAN community cannot be built based on elite-level interactions and belief alone. However, as countered by Puchala (Puchala 1984: 186-187), a genuine community will require not just instrumental contracts but also social relationship. These cultural contestations exist precisely because genuine cultural linkages and interactions that transcend modern day national boundaries have existed prior to colonialism. Bima Prawira Utama, PhD candidate, Universitas Padjadjaran, Indonesia, Philippines 4 (November 2012): 603-628. When the outbreak of war in Europe and the Pacific showed that the colonial powers were much weaker militarily than had been imagined, destroying colonial rule and harnessing the power of the masses seemed for the first time to be real possibilities. Of particular importance were efforts to bring villages under closer state control, curb shifting patron-client relationships, and centralize and tighten the state administrative apparatus. As a result, there was never any real interest in the creation of the we-feeling type of community to begin with. Thus, member states will have to de-parochialize their curriculum and re-tailor them to educate and familiarize the young people of ASEAN about their shared historical-cultural roots. ASEANs behavior have shown not to align with its goals of the building of a collective ASEAN Identity as constantly articulated. 3 (December 2004): 416-433. Intra-regional people-to-people interaction at the ground level should therefore be highly encouraged. In the mainland states three great rulers of three new dynasties came to the fore: Bodawpaya (ruled 17821819) in Myanmar, Rama I (17821809) in Siam (Thailand), and Gia Long (180220) in Vietnam. The Japanese had no plans to radicalize or in any way destabilize Southeast Asiawhich, after all, was slated to become part of a Tokyo-centred Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere; in the short term they sought to win the war, and in the long run they hoped to modernize the region on a Japanese model. It will follow McMillan and Chaviss definition of a sense of community as a feeling that members have of belonging, a feeling that members matter to one another and to the group, and a shared faith that members needs will be met through their commitment to be together and Henri Tajfels definition of identity as part of an individuals self-concept which derives from his knowledge of his membership in a social group (or groups) together with the value and emotional significance attached to that membership (McMillan and Chavis 1986; Tajfel 1981). The World Factbook. Accessed 25 January, 2018. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/resources/the-world-factbook/. Denoon, David B.H. This will require both the political elites and citizens of ASEAN to break away from the inherited baggage of colonialism and abandon the language game of fixed, stable and exclusive identities. From these, it is clear that the sanctity of national sovereignty and principles of non-interference as inherited under colonial rule continues to inform diplomatic relations in the region and has become the guiding principle of ASEAN. The One ASEAN identity will continue to be nothing more than a political slogan. From its roots as an inward-looking multilateral regional arrangement, ASEAN has since expanded its geographical scope to engage with external powers in the Asia Pacific region through the creation of modalities such as the ASEAN Regional Forum in 1994, ASEAN Plus Three (China, Japan and Republic of Korea) in 1997 and East Asia Summit in 2005 (Prasetyono 2007: 109-116). Roberts, Christopher. Mayer, Franz C. and Jan Palmowski. Similar to Benedict Andersons imagined community of a nation; a regional identity can also be imagined (Anderson 1983). Singapore: S.Rajaratnam School of International Studies, 2007. Making Process, Not Progress: ASEAN and the Evolving East Asian Regional Order. International Security 32, no. The Dual Nature of European Identity: Subjective Awareness and Coherence. Journal of European Public Policy 16, no. Indonesia's civil law system is based specifically off of the Roman-Dutch model. Reid, Anthony Reid. The same language games played by the colonial functionaries continue to be played by the political elites of Southeast Asia which informs present-day sensibilities in the statecraft, economy and international relations of the region. 1. Collective Identity Formation in Asian Regionalism: ASEAN Identity and the Construction of the Asia-Pacific Regional Order. Paper presented at Research Committee Sessions (RC06) Theorising the Role of Identity in the Unfolding of Regionalism: Comparative Perspectives, International Political Science Association. An Update of ASEAN Awareness and Attitudes A Ten Nation Survey Fact Sheet of Key Findings. Institute of Southeast Asian studies, August 2015. South East Asia Research, 18(1), 5-31. Challenges for the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Pacific Affairs 71, no.4 (Winter 1998-1999), 505-523. Economic stagnation. Chang, Jun Yan. Historical works have shown that forms of regional linkages had already existed prior to the advent of colonialism (Steinberg 1971). French colonists were interested in acquiring land, exploiting . Hirschman, Charles. Web. S. Rajaratnam School of InternationalStudies, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 22 February 2012. Despite the immense amount of scholarly work carried out on ASEAN, existing literature seems unable to provide a satisfactory answer to this predicament. Azmawati, Dian and Linda Quayle. 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